POLITICAL STRUCTURE

Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi and his Satyagraha, a unique non-violent campaign, India threw off the yoke of British rule on August 15, 1947. Free India's first Prime Minister, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, described the moment as a "tryst with destiny".

In less than three years of attaining freedom, India had framed a constitution and declared itself a Republic on January 26, 1950. The constitution was given shape by some of the finest minds of the country who ensured the trinity of justice, liberty and equality, for the citizens of India. The constitution was made flexible enough to adjust to the demands of social and economic changes within a democratic framework.

Adopting the path of democracy, the country held its first general elections in 1952. All adults above the age of 21 were eligible for voting, though the age has since been lowered to 18. The charismatic Jawaharlal Nehru and his Congress party, which had spearheaded the freedom movement, won the elections handsomely.

Since then the durability of democracy in India and its people's faith in the ballot has often baffled sceptics. Perhaps, it is also the best testimony of the appeal of democracy. The last general elections in India held in 1991 brought back the Congress Party to power and the Government is headed by the Prime Minister, Mr P.V. Narasimha Rao.

The Constitution expected the State to play a key role in restructuring the economy of the nation. The task of preparing the blue print for development was entrusted to the Planning Commission. Set up in 1950, it was headed by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru. The Prime Minister in office continues to be its head. Its members are drawn from among the best brains in the country.

Thus, the process of building the infrastructure for a rapid all-round growth was put out by the Planning Commission in the shape of the First Five-Year Plan. Though there have been a few "plan holidays", the process has essentially continued and the Eighth Plan was launched in 1992.

It is the first Five-Year Plan that has been prepared when India is engaged in restructuring its economic order and removing some of the controls and regulations to provide a competitive stimulus to the country's industry.

Since independence, India has certainly covered a vast distance on the road to becoming a modern State. It has one of the largest industrial infrastructures in the world and its pool of scientific skills and talents is surpassed only by three countries. Despite some occasional setbacks the economy remains vibrant. The range of goods that India produces is amazing for a Third World country still struggling to be modern. But more amazing has been India's success in wiping out its image as a food deficient nation. The country feeds itself from internal production, come drought or flood. And these twin calamities visit some part of the country every year.

Indian Union

India is a Union of 25 States and seven centrally administered Union Territories.

The States are Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Goa, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. The centrally administered territories are Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chandigarh, Daman & Diu, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Delhi, Lakshadweep, and Pondicherry.

Constitution

The country attained freedom on 15 August 1947. The Constitution of the Republic came into effect on 26 January 1950.

The Constitution provides for single and uniform citizenship for the whole nation and confers the right to vote on every person who is a citizen of India and 18 years of age or older.

Fundamental Rights

The Fundamental Rights of every Indian citizen include the freedom of speech, expression, belief, assembly and association, migration, and choice of occupation or trade. These rights also protect every Indian from discrimination on grounds of race, religion, creed or sex, and are enforceable in courts of law.

Government

The Legislature: India has a parliamentary form of government based on universal adult franchise. The executive authority is responsible to the elected representatives of the people in the Parliament for all its decisions and actions. Sovereignty rests ultimately with the people.

Rajya Sabha (Council of States): The Council of States consists of not more than 250 members, of whom 12 are nominated by the President of India and the rest elected. It is not subject to dissolution, one-third of its members retiring at the end of every second year. The elections to the Council are indirect. The allotted quota of the representatives of each State are elected by the members of the Legislative Assembly of that State, in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote. The nominated members are persons with special knowledge or practical experience in literature, science, art and social service. The Rajya Sabha is presided over by the Vice-President of India.

Lok Sabha (House of the People): The House of the People consists of 545 members. Of these, 530 are directly elected from the Z5 States and 13 from the seven Union Territories. Two members are nominated by the President to represent the Anglo-Indian community.

Unless dissolved sooner, the term of the House is five years from the date appointed for its first meeting. The Lok Sabha elects its own presiding officer, the Speaker.

The Executive: The President of India is the Head of the State and the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. He is elected by an electoral college composed of members of both the Houses of Parliament (Rajya Sabha and Lok Sabha) and the legislatures of the constituent States. The President holds office for five years and can be re-elected.

The President does not normally exercise any constitutional powers on his own initiative. These are exercised by the Council of Ministers, headed by the Prime Minister, which is responsible to the popularly elected Parliament.

The Vice-President is elected jointly by the members of both the Houses of Parliament. The person enjoying majority support in the Lok Sabha is appointed Prime Minister by the President. He then appoints other ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister can remain in office only as long as he or she enjoys majority support in the Parliament.

The Judiciary: The judiciary is independent of the executive. It is the guardian and interpreter of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the highest judicial tribunal, standing at the apex of a single unified system for the whole country. Each State has its own High Court. A uniform code of civil and criminal laws applies to the whole country.

The States: The States have their own Legislative Assemblies and in certain cases a second Chamber. All members of the Legislative Assemblies are elected by universal adult franchise. The Heads of the States are called Governors. Appointed by the President, they normally exercise the same powers in the States as the President does in the Union government. As in the Central Government, each State has a Cabinet headed by the Chief Minister responsible to the elected State Legislature.

Constitutional Provisions

Adult Suffrage: The Constitution lays down that elections to the House of the People (Lok Sabha) and State Legislative Assemblies shall be held on the basis of universal adult franchise. Every citizen who is not less than 18 years of age enjoys the right to vote provided he or she is not otherwise disqualified on grounds of unsoundness of mind, crime or corrupt or illegal practices.

Qualifications for Membership: The Constitution prescribes the basic provisions relating to elections. The details of the laws of election were left by the drafters of the Constitution to be elaborated and defined by subsequent legislation. Hence, the major part of the election laws is to be found in the Representation of the People Act, 1950 and 1951 and the rules made thereunder.

In the light of the experience of successive general elections, amendments were made in these regulations to simplify the electoral procedure. The laws and procedures governing elections are uniform throughout- the country.

Election Commission: The electoral machinery is centralised in an independent statutory body called the Election Commission. The Commission is responsible for the 'superintendence, direction and control' of the electoral rolls for all elections to the Parliament and to the State Legislatures and also for conducting the elections.

Media: India's magazines and newspapers are largely privately owned. About 150 major publications in English and 350 in Indian languages form an independent press. A number of specialised periodicals on science, finance, commerce, sports, culture and arts are also published. Altogether, about 2500 newspapers are published daily in nearly 100 languages and dialects.

Radio and television play a vital role in a country of India's dimensions. They are State-owned. While they provide entertainment to millions of Indians, they also aid the spread of literacy and development.

Defence

India believes in a policy that promotes peace and international cooperation. However, the country has a land frontier of 15,200 km, a coastline of 7,516.6 km and an exclusive economic zone of 2.2 million sq. km, island territories, vital offshore installations and airspace. The armed forces, therefore, have to be kept prepared and well equipped to repel any external threat.

The country's armed forces are well-trained, disciplined and free from politics. The accent in defence planning is on increasing indigenous capacity and a reliable mechanism of inter-services, inter-departmental and multi-level coordination and monitoring has been devised to help defence planning. The current strategic and technological scenarios as well as future projections are considered in preparing the defence plan. Periodic review addresses any unexpected development or threat to security.

To keep the Army in a state of constant preparedness, it is necessary to modernise it. The tank fleet is being revamped. Trials of a repowered Vijayanta tank have been conducted; the T-55 fleet is being given more fire power and night fighting capabilities; T-72 tanks and BMP2 infantry combat vehicles are being manufactured in India. Some pre-production series of Arjun, the indigenously developed main battle tank, are to be introduced in service by 1993-94. A new generation of anti tank guided missile, is to be introduced shortly.

The vintage 75/24 mountain gun is to be replaced by the 105 mm light field gun from ordnance factories of the Army. The 155 mm towed howitzer gun has been inducted into service with a new generation of ammunition. The infantry has been converted into the Reorganised Army Plains Infantry Division (RAPIDS) and night fighting capabilities have been enhanced through third generation passive devices and thermal imaging systems. Sophisticated VHF and HF equipment have been developed to produce jam resistant frequency hopping sets while different kinds of indigenous radar will boost the air defence and artillery capabilities.

The Indian Navy has a three-dimensional presence to meet any threat to the country and its maritime interests. The Navy has two aircraft carriers, sophisticated warships, advance submarines and the latest aircraft. Many warships are of Indian design. The first Indian made missile boat, INS Vibhuti, has come out of Mazagaon Docks, Bombay, which also launched the first Destroyer of Project-15. The first Indian built Type 1500 submarine, INS Shalki, was commissioned in February 1992.

Watching the vast Indian skies is the Indian Air Force (IAF) with its array of modern planes which include the MIG-29, Mirage-2000 and Jaguar. The transport fleet includes IL-16 and AN-32. The IAF has also acquired attack helicopters like Ml-8 and Ml-17. Hindustan Aeronautics Limited manufactures Chetak and Cheetah helicopters which are used as airborne forward air controller, anti tank guided missile-carriers and search and rescue mission transport. The surface to air guided weapon system has improved greatly with the induction of SAM-III anti-aircraft missiles. The IAF missile system is lethal enough to face any eventuality.

An important part of the Defence set up is the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) which has several significant achievements to its credit. These include the surface to surface missile PRITHVI; medium range surface to air missile AKASH; third generation anti-tank missile NAG and re-entry technology demonstrator AGNI. Trials of the short-range quick reaction surface to air missile TRISHUL have been conducted. A sophisticated low-level warning radar INDRA has been developed and inducted into service. Several high technology projects being undertaken include the light combat aircraft, gas turbine engine and pilotless target aircraft.

The Ordnance factories and public sector undertakings produce, in cooperation with DRDO, a variety of armaments some of which are exported. During 1991-92, export commitments worth Rs.1.7 billion were made.

The Indian armed forces are essentially meant to defend the nation's frontiers. But they have also provided help, strictly on request, to some neighbours to maintain peace and stability. The Indian Peace Keeping Force played a significant role in the implementation of the Indo-Sri Lanka Agreement and facilitating elections in that country. The rapid deployment capacity of the Indian forces was demonstrated by their success in quickly crushing an attempt to overthrow the legally constituted Government in the Islamic Republic of Maldives.

Foreign Policy

Throughout the long years of the freedom struggle, India preserved its pride in its tradition and culture which was to shape the free nation's personality. India has consistently adopted a policy of non interference in the internal affairs of other nations. Free India also became a crusader for the dignity of the human being. It was only natural for India, after it became independent, to adopt the policy of non alignment which assures maintenance of a national identity and independence of judgement in international affairs.

For Jawaharlal Nehru, architect of India's foreign policy, non-alignment reflected the cherished ideals of the country's freedom struggle. He was among the founding fathers of the Non-Aligned Movement.

Founded in 1961, the Non-Aligned Movement with a present membership of over 100 has grown more than four times since its birth. The dissolution of the former USSR has not diminished the relevance of NAM. In essence, non-alignment remains an assertion of independence. As the Prime Minister, Mr. P.V. Narasimha Rao, observed, "Becoming independent is a one time act; but remaining independent is a permanent responsibility."

India chaired the Non Aligned Movement between 1983 and 1986, first under the leadership of Mrs. Indira Gandhi and then under Mr. Rajiv Gandhi. India has always worked tirelessly in strengthening the movement and steering it on the path envisaged by its founding fathers.

Disarmament

India firmly holds the view that mankind can be saved from the horrors of a nuclear holocaust only if the world is rid of nuclear weapons and is ready to sign any agreement that imposes a total ban and which is universal and non-discriminatory. India has joined forces in a Six-Nation Disarmament Initiative with Tanzania, Greece, Sweden, Mexico and Argentina. The late Mr. Rajiv Gandhi, when he was Prime Minister, had unfolded an action plan to eliminate all nuclear weapons. India has also agreed to sign a convention banning chemical weapons.

India and Neighbours

Acknowledging that South-South cooperation is an essential ingredient of the non-aligned foreign policy, India wholeheartedly endorsed the idea of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). With common land or sea borders with all the members of SAARC (Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka), India has endeavoured to promote mutually beneficial cooperation in the region.

Soon after the emergence of multi-party democracy in Nepal, the Nepalese Prime Minister, Mr. Bhattarai visited Delhi in 1990 to usher in a new era in the long-standing relations between the two countries. The visit of the Chinese Prime Minister Li Peng to India in 1991 was an important milestone in the development of Indo-Chinese relations. Relations with Bangladesh have been friendly and the visit of Begum Zia in 1992 to India was an important event. Close relations with Bhutan and the Maldives are further consolidated with periodic exchange of visits by high-level delegations. After assurances from Sri Lanka, the voluntary return of Sri Lankan refugees began early in 1992. Five years ago, India and Sri Lanka had signed an agreement aimed at solving the ethnic problem in Sri Lanka. Despite some ups and downs, efforts to carry on the confidence building process with Pakistan continue with bilateral dialogues and summit meetings.

Active Role against Colonialism and Racism

India has been consistent in extending moral, political and material support to all movements against racism and foreign domination. Free India's commitment to fight colonialism and apartheid had roots in Mahatma Gandhi's non-violent struggle for the dignity of man. Leaders of the freedom movement had felt that India's independence would be purposeful only when colonialism and apartheid were wiped out totally.

As a prominent member of the non-aligned movement, India's efforts at various international platforms including the United Nations have been aimed at putting an end to the vestiges of colonial rule and apartheid. India consistently supported the Namibian people in their struggle for freedom and the brave people of South Africa in their battle against the inhuman system of apartheid which, at last, appears to be succeeding.

A committee under the chairmanship of India had established the AFRICA (Action for Resisting Invasion, Colonialism and Apartheid) Fund at the eighth NAM summit at Harare in 1986. Soon after his release from prison, the ANC leader, Dr. Nelson Mandela, visited India in October 1990. He was awarded the Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian decoration in India. Earlier in the same year, the then Prime Minister, Mr. V.P. Singh, had led a high-level delegation to Namibia to celebrate the independence of that nation. Relations with all the other African countries have been friendly as India attaches special importance to ties with the African countries. India has also provided bilateral assistance to the liberation movements in Africa and all the Front-line States in Southern Africa.

India also values its ties with West Asia. India's support to the Arab cause, particularly to the Palestinian struggle for their just and inalienable rights, has been consistent and unequivocal. The reactivation of the West Asian peace process and the ongoing dialogue between the Arab States and Israel to find a just equitable settlement to the Arab-Israeli dispute has been widely welcomed in India.

With the changed political realities in West Asia, India decided to establish full diplomatic relations with Israel.

Indian Ocean

Over the past two decades, the Indian Ocean has become an arena of great power rivalry and confrontation. This has naturally led to greater tensions in the region. The littoral and hinterland States of the Indian Ocean have expressed their unified and determined opposition to such outside military presence and called for its elimination in the United Nations Declaration on the Indian Ocean as a Zone of Peace. India hopes that the great powers and major maritime users will join the efforts of the littoral States of the Indian Ocean in achieving this objective.

Economic and Technical Cooperation

As an erstwhile colony and one that has now come a long way in overcoming the effects of colonial domination and has achieved self-reliance in diverse fields, Indian economic and technical assistance is eagerly sought by a number of developing countries. India provides many of these countries with its expertise in projects ranging from the construction of cement plants to airports and railway systems. A number of Indian firms have been active in this regard in South-East Asia, Africa and West Asia.

The Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) Programme provides Indian expertise and consultancy services to a number of developing countries for feasibility and detailed technical evaluation studies. The programme supports training of personnel in India in a host of areas like agriculture, animal husbandry, small-scale industries, etc.

India has established a reputation for appropriateness and excellence in a number of areas. Developing countries are increasingly finding cooperation with countries like India a very attractive option.

India provides facilities to students from Asia and Africa for university education, especially in professional areas such as medicine, engineering, architecture, etc. In addition, thousands have been trained in Indian institutions in diverse fields such as railways, mass media, industrial consultancy, business management, education, agricultural research, shipping and water resources management.

New International Economic Order

As a responsible and progressive member of the international community, India is continuing her untiring efforts to bring about a constructive dialogue between the developed and developing countries in their quest for a cooperative approach towards a new International Economic Order. India is convinced that the establishment of an equitable International Economic Order involving structural and other changes is the only answer to the various economic ills and problems of development confronting the world today.