(This article has been taken from 'Malaysia 1994'. If you would like to ask anything about this article, please contact the Ministry of Information, Malaysia).

Malaysia practices parliamentary democracy and is ruled as a Constitutional Monarchy, with His Majesty the Yang di-Pertuan Agong as the Head of the country. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected to the throne for a five-year term from one of the hereditary Rulers of the nine states in the Federation which are ruled by Sultans. The states are Perlis, Kedah, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Johor, Pahang, Terengganu and Kelantan.

In the other states that is Melaka, Pulau Pinang, Sabah and Sarawak, the Head of State is the Yang di-Pertua Negeri or Governor of the State. The Yang di-Pertua Negeri is appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong for a four-year term.

The Federal Constitution of Malaysia clearly divides the authority of the Federation into its Legislative Authority, Judicial Authority and Executive Authority. The separation of power occurs both at federal and state levels, as in keeping with the concept of federalism which form the basis of the government administration.

THE YANG Dl~PERTUAN AGONG

His Majesty the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King or Supreme Sovereign) is the Supreme Head of Malaysia. His Consort, the Raja Permaisuri Agong, takes precedence immediately after him. Every act of government flows from his authority but (excluding few matters in which he retains a personal discretion) he acts on the advice of Parliament and the Cabinet. The appointment of a Prime Minister lies within his discretion. He has the right to refuse to dissolve Parliament even against the advice of the Prime Minister. As fountain of Justice, he appoints the Judges of the Federal Court and the High Courts on the advice of the Prime Minister, in accordance with procedures prescribed in the Federal Constitution. As fountain of Honour, he can bestow orders of chivalry or give other honours or recognition.

The Yang di-Pertuan Agong has power to grant pardons, reprieves and respites in respect of all offences which have been tried by court-martial and all offences committed in the Federal Territories of Kuala Lumpur and La buan. (The Ruler or Yang di-Pertua Negeri of a State has power to grant pardons, reprieves and respites in respect of all other offences committed in his State). He also exercises a similar prerogative in Pulau Pinang, Melaka, Sabah, Sarawak and the Federal Territories of Kuala Lumpur and Labuan as Head of Religion in these states if a pardon is in respect of an offence against the Muslim religion.

Election of King

The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected by the Conference of Rulers. To qualify for election he must be one of the nine Rulers. He holds office for five years or until his earlier resignation or death. When the office falls vacant, the Conference of Rulers meets to elect a successor. Each Ruler signifies his intention or otherwise to offer himself for election. A secret ballot is then taken on each Ruler in turn starting with the Ruler next in precedence after the late or former Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The first Ruler who obtains not less than five votes favourable to him is then declared to be elected. When this has been done, a Deputy Supreme Head of Malaysia (the Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong) may be elected by a similar process. On his election, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong relinquishes, for his tenure of office, all his functions as Ruler of his own State and may appoint a Regent. However, he remains Head of Muslim religion in his State; and in the event of the Regency becoming vacant thereafter, he may appoint a new Regent in accordance with the Constitution of his State. He must also approve any amendment to the Constitution of his State.

Conference of Rulers

The Conference of Rulers is established by the Constitution and consists of Rulers and the Yang di-Pertua Negeri. Its prime duty is the election of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and his Deputy (in this, however, the Yang di-Pertua Negeri plays no part). The Conference must be consulted on the appointment of Judges, the Attorney-General, the Election Commission and the Public Services Commission. The Conference must likewise be consulted and concur in the alteration of state boundaries, the extension to the Federation as a whole, in Muslim religious acts and observances, and in any Bill to amend the Constitution. Consultation is mandatory in matters affecting public-policy or the special matters affecting the rights, prerogatives and privileges of the Rulers themselves. The Prime Minister, Menteri-Menteri Besar and Chief Ministers attend all the meetings of the Conference of Rulers other than a meeting to elect the Yang di-Pertuan Agong or the Timbalan Yang di-Pertuan Agong.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY

Legislative Authority is the power to make laws and also the power to raise taxes and authorise expenditure.

At Federal level, legislative power is vested in a bicameral Parliament headed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong and comprises the Dewan Negara (Senate) and Dewan Rakyat (House of Representatives). The Dewan Negara has 69 members, of whom 40 are nominated by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, 26 are elected by the State Legislative Assemblies and three members represent the Federal Territories of Kuala Lumpur and Labuan. The Dewan Rakyat is fully elective and has 180 members.

Elections for the Dewan Rakyat, where the parties with a majority form the government, must be held every five years.

Each state has unicameral legislature for which elections are held every five years.

The distribution of legislative power between the Federal and State Government is enumerated in the Ninth Schedule of the Federal Constitution; and is set out in a Federal List, State List and a Concurrent List.

The main subjects in the Federal List are external affairs, defence, internal security, civil and criminal law, citizenship, finance, commerce and industry shipping, communications, health and labour.

The State List comprises matters such as land, agriculture, forestry, local government, riverine fishing, Muslim law, etc. In the Concurrent List, where both Federal and State Governments are, competent to legislate are subjects such as social welfare, scholarships, protection of wildlife and town and country planning.

Should inconsistency between federal and state law exist, federal law takes precedence over state law.

Federal Parliamenf

Article 55 of the Federal Constitution provides that only the Yang di-Pertuan Agong shall summon Parliament to meet. He is also vested with special powers to prorogue or dissolve Parliament. As such, His Majesty the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is obliged by the Constitution to summon Parliament within six months between the last sitting in one session and the date appointed for the first meeting in the next session.

For the Dewan Rakyat, the Leader of the House shall determine at least 28 days before the commencement of each session, the dates on which the House shall meet in that session. However, the Leader or Deputy Leader of the House may vary from time to time the dates so fixed.

The Federal Parliament is the supreme Legislative Authority in Malaysia. Unless earlier dissolved, Parliament shall function for a period of a five years from the date of its first meeting after a general election. On the expiry of a five-year term, Parliament automatically stands dissolved and within sixty days from the date of dissolution, a general election to elect representatives for the Dewan Rakyat shall be held and Parliament shall be summoned to meet on a date not later than 120 days from the date of dissolution.

Functions of Parliament

As the Legislative Authority for the Federation, Parliament makes laws applicable to the Federation as a whole. Parliament also controls the finances of the government.

Federal taxes and rates can only be raised under the authority of Parliament as expressed in form of federal law. All revenue raised, however, must be paid into the Federal Consolidated Fund, and all expenditure can only be made under the authority of Parliament.

Parliament also serves as the forum for criticism and the focus of public opinion on national affairs. Through debates in Parliament, the policies and actions of the government are kept attuned to the state of public opinion.

To enable Parliament to undertake fully and effectively the responsibilities entrusted to it, the Constitution confers certain rights and legal immunities designated as "Parliamentary Privileges". These "privileges" are enjoyed by each House as a whole and by individual Member of Parliament.

Each House is empowered to regulate its own procedure, each has exclusive control over its own proceedings, the validity of which may not be questioned in any Court, and each House can punish its members for breaches of privileges or contempt of that House. Subject to Article 63 (4) of the Federal Constitution, Members of Parliament individually enjoy immunity from civil and criminal proceedings in respect of utterances made or any vote given by them in Parliament, and the same immunity protects other persons acting under the authority of either House.

The party that wins a majority of seats in a general election and is able to command majority support in the Dewan Rakyat shall form a government. The leader of the majority party who commands the confidence of the majority of the members of the Dewan Rakyat shall be appointed Prime Minister and if he ceases to command such confidence in the said Dewan, he shall tender the resignation of the Cabinet or request the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to dissolve Parliament.

Dewan Negara

The Dewan Negara comprises of 69 members of whom 40 are nominated by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong from among citizens who, in his opinion "have rendered distinguished public service or have achieved distinction in the professions, commerce, industry, agriculture, cultural activities or social services or are representatives of racial minorities or are capable of representing the interest of aborigines", two members to represent the Federal Territory of Kuala Lumpur and one member for the Federal Territory of Labuan shall also be appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The remaining 26 are elected by the Legislative Assemblies of the 13 States of Malaysia, each state returning two Senators. Both the President and the Deputy President are elected by members of the Dewan Negara from among themselves. Membership of the Senate is limited to citizens aged 30 and above. The life of the Senate is not affected by the dissolution of Parliament. A Senator holds office for three years.

Parliament is empowered by the Constitution to make variations in the composition of the Senate, such as increasing the number of Senators to be elected by each State Legislative Assembly to three, providing for Senators to be returned by the direct vote of electors, and reducing the number of or abolishing appointed Senators.

Dewan Rakyat

The Dewan Rakhyat is fully elective. The Speaker and the Deputy Speaker are elected by the Dewan Rakyat. But there is special provision in the Constitution for the Speaker to be elected from outside the membership of the Dewan Rakyat, the person so elected is regarded as a member of the Dewan in addition to the 180 elected members. Membership to Dewan Rakyat is limited to citizens aged 21 and above and who are not members of the Senate. The life of the Lower House is five years. However, it is within the discretion of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to dissolve Parliament before then, on the advice of the Prime Minister.

JUDICIAL AUTHORITY

By virtue of Article 121 ( 1 ) of the Constitution, the judicial power of the Federation is vested in the High Court of Malaya and the High Court of Borneo and in such inferior courts as provided by federal law.

The Judiciary is empowered to hear and determine civil and criminal matters, and to pronounce on the legality of any legislative or executive acts. The Law also confers on it the authority to interpret the Federal and State Constitutions.

The Judicial Authority of the country is vested in the Federal Court, the High Courts and Subordinate Courts. Presently, the Federal Court is the highest court in Malaysia. The Head of the Judiciary is the Lord President of the Federal Court.

To enable it to perform its judicial functions impartially, the Judiciary must be independent. This means the independence of the individual Judges in the exercise of their judicial functions and the independence of the Judiciary as an institution.

Appointment of Judges

The Lord President, the two Chief Justices, Judges of the Federal Court and Judges of the High Courts are appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, acting on the advice of the Prime Minister and after consultation with the Conference of Rulers.

The number of Judges is fixed by the Constitution although this may be altered by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong by way of an order. At present the maximum number is 27 for Peninsular Malaysia and eight for Sabah and Sarawak, excluding the two Chief Justices.

Courts of Justice

The Malaysian Courts of Justice are made up of the Superior Courts and the Subordinate Courts. The Superior Courts comprise of the Federal Court and the two High Courts, one for Peninsular Malaysia and one for Sabah and Sarawak (formerly known as Borneo). The Subordinate Courts in Peninsular Malaysia consist of the Sessions Court, Magistrates' Court and the Penghulu's Courts. Subordinate Courts in Sabah and Sarawak consist of a Sessions Court, Magistrates' Courts and Native Courts. In addition to the above, there is also a Juvenile Court for offenders below the age of 18.

EXECUTIVE AUTHORITY

Executive Authority i.e. the power to govern, is vested by Article 39 is the Yang di-Pertuan Agong but is exercisable by a Cabinet of Ministers headed by the Prime Minister. The Cabinet is responsible to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong.

The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is the head of Executive Authority in the country.

Every executive act of the Federal Government flows from the Royal authority, whether directly or indirectly.

But, in accordance with the principle of a democratic ruling system, the Chief Executive is the Prime Minister. Therefore, in this section, emphasis is given to the role of the Prime Minister, the Cabinet and the government administrative machinery which has been set up to carry out the executive functions.

Prime Minister

As the Head executive of the government, the Prime Minister is responsible to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong for all government matters. The Prime Minister is appointed from the leader of the party that has a majority in the Dewan

Rakyat and holds office at the Royal pleasure. He is also the head of the Cabinet of Ministers, where he is primus interpares, the first amongst equals. As leader of the party with the most members in the Dewan Rakyat, the Prime Minister is the most important elected representative of the people in Malaysia's democratic ruling system.

The Prime Minister's main function is to preside over the Cabinet and to coordinate policies and efforts of the various portfolios in the government. The Prime Minister also has certain constitutional and statutory functions. He advises the Yang di-Pertuan Agong on the appointment of Judges, the Service and Election Commissions and the filling of certain senior posts in the Civil Service.

The post of Deputy Prime Minister is a conventional one (i.e. it is not established under the Constitution or any written law). The Deputy again enjoys a high measure of confidence within the Cabinet and the party, and is available to take over the administration in the event of the absence or disability of the Prime Minister.

Cabinet and Ministers

The Yang di-Pertuan Agong appoints a Cabinet - a council of Ministers - to advise him in the exercise of his functions. It consists of the Prime Minister and an unspecified number of Ministers who must all be members of Parliament (Members of the Dewan Rakyat or the Dewan Negara). The Prime Minister must be a citizen, born in Malaysia, and a member of the Dewan Rakyat (not Senator) who, in the opinion of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong commands the confidence of the majority of that House.

Ministers are appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Cabinet meets regularly, generally once a week, under the chairmanship of the Prime Minister, to formulate the policy of the government.

The Ministers hold different portfolios and are collectively responsible for all decisions made by the Cabinet, which is the highest policy-making body in the country.

GOVERNMENT ADMINISTRATIVE MACHINERY

The Malaysian Government administrative system is made up of three main levels, namely federal, state and district levels known as the Local Government. The Federal Constitution has given extensive provisions to the Federal Government where national administration is concerned. However in certain cases the state governments have more powers over the administration of certain matters within the state governments' jurisdiction. The state governments therefore also play an important role in the administration of their states. The administrative duties at the Federal level include all aspect of public services such as economy, social, security and education. To ensure the smooth implementation of the country's administration the Malaysian Government has set up various agencies to carry out certain functions to enable the government to attain its objectives.

Agencies

The various government agencies were established by the government to plan,

control, assist and implement all the activities planned to attain all the national objectives. To ensure that a government agency will be able to perform its functions smoothly, the agency concerned must be organised in a proper, systematic and effective manner . In addition, the government would appoint officers to hold public services posts at various levels.

The administration of a government agency would be incomplete without financial allocation to pay for all its activities. To finance the agencies, a yearly allocation is given based on their financial needs to enable the agencies to carry out activities and responsibilities entrusted to them. At present, the agencies established are responsible for providing public services in the field of social [welfare], economy, security and law.

In the government administrative machinery the government agencies are comprised of three main components, namely ministries, departments and statutory bodies. At ministerial level the functions of the main agencies are to formulate, control and implement government policies; while at departmental levels the agencies are responsible for implementing all the policies. Agencies of statutory bodies are semi-government in structure and are responsible for carrying out duties assigned to them to meet the government's aspiration.

Ministries

Ministries are the highest bodies in the federal administrative machinery. Each ministry is responsible for formulating, planning, controlling and coordinating

government policies pertaining to its functions.

Normally each ministry is headed by a minister who holds a certain portfolio. In cases where portfolio carries heavy and important responsibilities, the minister would be assisted by deputy ministers and parliamentary secretaries. However, deputy ministers and parliamentary secretaries are not included in the Cabinet.

The function of each ministry is to formulate, plan, control and coordinate government policies and all matters under the portfolio of the minister heading it. It is also the responsibility of the ministry to control departments and statutory bodies under it.

The most senior administrative officer is the Secretary-General to the Government. The duties and responsibilities of a secretary-general include matters pertaining to formulation of policies, planning, control and coordinating of activities of departments and statutory bodies under the ministry concerned. He is also the advisor to the minister and is responsible to the Chief Secretary to the Government who is also the head of the Federal Public Services.

Each ministry has a headquarters of its own. The organisational structure is divided into several divisions or units depending on its size.

Generally, Public Administrative and Diplomatic Officers fill most of the posts in the management and professional categories, while other posts in departments are filled by officers specially appointed to carry out specific functions of their departments.

In view of the present financial system, ministries are divided into two groups, namely self-accounting ministries and non self-accounting ministries.

Whether or not a Ministry is self accounting is based on the size of the ministry concerned. The purpose of establishing self-accounting is to ensure the smooth running of its administration and expedite its financial processing. In the case of non-self accounting ministries, the Accountant General's Department would be responsible for its financial arrangement.

Departments

Government departments are second highest agencies responsible for implementing government policies. Most departments were established during the colonial era. During British rule over Malaya, government departments were set up to implement policies and carry out activities of the ministries concerned.

Usually the functions of a department are related to certain policy determined by the Government. The daily activities of a government department involved in direct rendering of services to the society. The services rendered include social, security, development and other social services.

Each department has a headquarters of its own which are mostly located in Kuala Lumpur. The functions of the headquarters are to formulate policies, plan, supervise and coordinate activities at state and district levels. In addition the headquarters are responsible for matters related to the progress of its officers and staff's careers. A department is headed by Director-General who is also the chief administrative officers. The title Director-General is used depending on the size of the department.

Officers and staff appointed as agents to implement the government policies are selected according to their academic qualifications and certain criteria.

Statutory Bodies

The setting up of a statutory body is governed by laws. Statutory bodies are established with the objective of implementing certain duties and responsibilities in line with the national objectives. Corporations are set up to take over the duties and responsibilities of certain government departments. The advantages of setting up corporations are to enable benefits derived from the government to be integrated with the benefits from the private sector.

Every public corporation has officers of its own to mange it. The chief administrator of a public corporation is called the General Manager who is responsible for management and administration in accordance with the corporations' objectives. To ensure a smooth administration a corporation has certain divisions assigned with special tasks. Every corporation has board of directors. In the case of statutory bodies, their board of directors are appointed by the minister responsible for its establishment.

Non~Statutory Bodies

Non-Statutory bodies are established in accordance with Company Limited Act. Unlike statutory bodies, they are not subjected to government control and are free to have schemes of services of their own for their staff. Nevertheless their activities must be in line with provisions under the laws or acts under which it was established.

Coordinating Machinery at Federal

Level

In the national administrative system, government agencies at federal, department and statutory body levels play an important role in implementing government policies. Government agencies are the motivating power in the administrative system, helping the government to formulate policies enforcing the laws and carrying out activities which will benefit national development. Although each government agency has its own corporate objectives, generally government agencies carry out its duties and responsibilities as well as activities in line with the national aspirations and objectives. The close cooperation among the various agencies is imperative to stabilise administration and services to the society.

ADMINISTRATIVE MACHINERY AT STATE LEVEL

To carry its administrative functions, state governments in Peninsular Malaysia have entrusted the duties to the District Offices which in turn delegate the tasks to several mukims.

In Sarawak the state is divided into divisions and each division is divided into districts. Each division is headed by a Resident, while districts are headed by a District Officer as in Peninsular Malaysia. Sabah is divided into several residencies administered by residents. At district level the district officer is the Chief Administrator.

Other posts at state level are filled by state officers except for certain posts allocated to Federal Officers who are seconded. In states formerly known as Non-Federated Malay States all posts as district officers and assistant district officers are held by federal officers assigned to the areas. The posts are considered Administrative and Diplomatic Services posts (PTD) or Malay Civil Services posts. The Malay Civil Services are federal services in states formerly known as the Federated Malay States. Similar services are also available in other states and known as the State Civil Services. The Malay Civil Services are now known as the General Administrative Services.

Departments

Government Departments at state level are divided into two, namely state department and branches of federal departments. State departments are divided into two, namely state departments which are responsible to the state governments and state departments which are responsible to both the state and federal departments.

State Departments in Peninsular

Malaysia

State departments which are responsible to the state government carries out state administration. Important departments which are included in this category are State Secretary Office, State Financial Office, State Legal Advisor's Office and State Economic Planning Unit.

State Departments in Sabah and Sarawak

Sabah and Sarawak has more state departments as a result of the 1963 Malaysia Agreement giving both the states more power than those given to states in Peninsular Malaysia. However due to integration process most of the departments have slowly been taken over by the Federal Government.

The main state departments in Sabah and Sarawak which are still under the responsibilities of the state governments are similar to those in Peninsular Malaysia. The differences are that the main departments in Sabah are known as the Chief Minister's Office and the State Secretary Office in Sarawak are not directly responsible for matters pertaining to civil services like the State Secretary Office in Peninsular Malaysia. In Sarawak the task is carried out by the State Establishment Office.

Federal Department Branch

Federal department branches such as State Education Department and State Immigration Department are the responsibility of the Federal Government although they are subjected to coordination efforts of the State Administration. To meet the state needs, head of branches would be invited to committee meetings of State Government Council and State Action Council besides becoming a member of the State Development Committee and other state committees. The branches in Peninsular Malaysia are of the same status of those in Sabah and Sarawak.

Commissions

Similar to federal government, the state governments could also set up permanent and special temporary commissions. Members of commissions are appointed by the Malay Rulers or Yang di-Pertua Negeri on the advice of the Menteri Besar and Chief Ministers. All states except Negeri Sembilan, Perlis, Melaka and Pulau Pinang have State Public Services Commissions which are responsible for appointment to public services in the states. In the case of states without Public Services Commission, appointments to state posts are the responsibility of the Federal Public Services Commission.

Federal Secretary Office and Federal Financial Office

The Government has recreated the post of Federal Secretary and Federal Financial Officer for the states of Sabah and Sarawak. The main duties of the federal secretary are to coordinate and carry out administrative duties of government departments and public corporations in the states concerned. The officer is also responsible for strengthening relations between the federal government and state governments.

The federal financial office is also responsible to the Ministry of Finance in carrying out financial duties such as examining the budgets of federal agencies in Sabah and Sarawak. The objective of establishing the office is to expedite the decision making process, without having to consult its headquarters in Kuala Lumpur.

Public Corporations

The Public Corporations in the states include statutory and non-statutory Similar to the federal government, state bodies which belong to the state governments. The relations of these bodies with the state governments and the state main agencies are similar to relations between the federal public corporations and the federal government as well as the central agencies.

Other public corporations at state levels are branches of federal public corporations. Similar to branches of federal departments, the corporations are responsible to the Federal Government but subjected to coordination efforts of the state administration.

State Administration

In Peninsular Malaysia, administration of the states are carried out at state, district, mukim and kampung levels.

Districts

All states are divided into districts or provinces. Most of the development projects planned at federal and state levels are implemented at district level. The administrative machinery at district level is the District and Land Office which is headed by a District Officer. The office is responsible for land administration as well as District Council administration and development activities management apart from coordinating the activities of all government agencies at that level. Most of the federal departments and agencies have branches at district level.

Mukim

A district is divided into mukim which is headed by civil servant known as "penghulu" (penggawa in Kelantan). At this level there are few departments and corporations with its own branches such as sub-health centres. The main

role of a penghulu is to assist the District and Land Office as well as other government agencies in carrying out development programmes and projects, and to coordinate development activities at kampung level under his care.

Formerly, the post of penghulus were hereditary and sometimes filled by local residents who were influential in the area. At present penghulus are appointed by the State Public Service Commission and selected based on the former's academic qualifications and abilities. They are now regarded as civil servants.

Kampung

The lowest administrative machinery is kampung which is headed by a "Ketua Kampung" or Village Head known as "Penghulu" in Kelantan. A "Ketua Kampung" is appointed by the State Government and given allowances. They are not regarded as a public servant but as representative of the state government and local residents. The main role of the "Ketua Kampung" is to assist in the implementation of the government development projects. As Kampung are regarded as part of government administrative machinery, the Ketua Kampung's role is to assist the government agencies in determining the most suitable sites for development projects.

A Ketua Kampung carries out an important tasks being the Chairman of the Village Development and Security Committee (JKKK). Heads of government departments at district levels are also invited to the JKKK meetings. The establishment of the committees are Imperative to enable the local residents to play an active role in village planning and development programmes. The committees also help to unite kampung under the administration of mukim, districts and states to expedite development process and find solution to problems.

In Sabah, administration is divided into two levels, namely district and kampung levels. At district level the District Officer is the head. Besides Assistant District Officers, he is also assisted by "Ketua Daerah" who is responsible for all the administrative aspects related to racial group affairs.

Each racial group in a district is headed by a Native Chief or Ketua Anak Negeri who is responsible to the Ketua Daerah. All of them are regarded as civil servants. Like Ketua Kampung in Peninsular Malaysia, the village heads in Kampung in Sabah are not regarded as a civil servant.

In Sarawak the administration is divided into four levels, namely division, district, small district and kampung.

Planning and Implementation System at State Level

The planning and implementation system at state levels is similar to the federal level and involve [in] the formulation of policies as well as planning, implementation, coordination and reviewal.