An earlier version of her paper was presented at the Annual meeting of the American Comparative Literature Association in Spring 1993. I would like to thank Barbara Harlow for her support and suggestions, Dina Sherzer for input on an earlier draft, Preet for his encouragement, and three anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.

[2]Edward Said, "Kim, The Pleasures of Imperialism," Raritan 7 (1987):  63.

[3]Kipling left India in 1889 at age 24. Kim appeared in 1901.

[4]Said, "Kim," 37. Also see John A. McClure. Kipling and Conrad: the Colonial Fiction (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981); Edmund Wilson, "The Kipling that Nobody Read," in ed. Andrew Rutherford, Kipling's Mind and Art (California: Stanford University Press, 1964).

[5]Said, "Kim," 30.

[6]Ibid., 37.

[7]Terry Eagleton, Literary Theory: An Introduction (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1983), 132.

[8]Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Random House, 1978), 5, 7.

[9]Eagleton, 32.

[10]Tapati Guha-Thakurta, The Making of a 'New Indian Art: Artists, Aesthetics and Nationalism in Bengal, c. 1850-1920 (Great Britain: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 20-21.

[11]William Crook, ed., Hobson-Jobson: A Glossary of Anglo-Indian Colloquial Words and Phrases and Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive (New York: Humanities Press, 1968 (1903)), 44.

[12]Purnima Bose, "Survivors of the Raj, Survivors of the Empire: Narrating the Colonial and Post-Colonial Encounters" (Ph.D. diss., University of Texas, 1993), 165.

[13]Charles Allen, ed., Plain Tales from the Raj: Images of British India in the Twentieth Century (Andre Deutsch: British Broadcasting Corporation, 1975), 198. According to Ashis Nandy in The Intimate Enemy. Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1983), Kipling hated the Bengali babus in whom, having grown up in India and being bicultural, he saw an image of himself. Unable to identify with his English counterparts in England, Kipling suffered from a sense of marginality and felt distanced from English society in England. On page 67, Nandy writes: "young Rudyard ... remained in England a conspicuous bicultural sahib, the English counterpart of the type he was to later despise: the bicultural Indian babu."

[14]Rudyard Kipling, Kim (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 63.

[15]Kipling, 164.

[16]Ibid., 159.

[17]Ibid., 220, 223.

[18]Robert F. Moss, Rudyard Kipling and the Fiction of Adolescence (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1982), 83.

[19]Kipling, 4.

[20]See Tejaswini Niranjana, Siting Translation. History, Post-Structuralism and the Colonial Context (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992). Niranjana discusses the issue of translation not just to indicate an interlingual process but to name an entire problematic that raises questions of "representation, power and historicity (1)." She argues that the ability to translate was a good strategy for the British rulers because it removed their dependence on native intermediators to translate Indian laws.

[21]Moss, 89, 90.

[22]Said, Orientalism, 12.

[23]Kipling, 169.

[24]Ibid., 217.

²⁵Angrezi is the Hindustani term for the English language.

[26]Kipling, 216.

[27]Ibid., 341.

[28]Thomas Babington Macaulay, "Indian Education," in Prose and Poetry (Cambridge, 1952), 729.

[29]For a discussion on "hegemony theory" see Antonio Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsci (London, 1971).

[30]Kipling, 83.

[31]Said, Orientalism, 7.

[32]In the nineteenth century, Russia was trying to establish relations with the various Afghan rulers in an attempt to challenge England's supremacy in the region. To ward off the Russian threat, British rulers also attempted to extend their frontier into Afghanistan. According to Percival Spear the Afghan kings preferred their own independence to British or Russian rule. The Oxford History of Modern India: 1740-1947 (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1965).

[33]Kipling, 167-68.

[34]Gauri Vishwanathan, "Currying Favor: The Politics of British Educational and Cultural Policy in India, 1813-1854," Social Texts 19-20 (1988): 95.

[35]Thomas Babington Macaulay, "Minute on Indian Education," in Selected Writings, ed. John Clive (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), 249.

[36]Kipling, 217.

[37]Nandy, 77.

[38]Quoted in Nandy, 77.

[39]Said, "Kim," 52.

[40]For further discussion see B. R. Ambedkar, Gandhi and Gandhiism (Jullandar: Bheem Patrika Publications, 1970).

[41]Linlithgow to all Provincial Governors, 2 November 1942, in Nicholas Mansergh, Reassertion of Authority, Gandhi's Fast and the Succession to the Viceroyalty: 21 September 1942-12 June 1943, Vol. 3, The Transfer of Power 1942-7 (London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 1971) 190-91.

[42]Margaret Herdeck and Gita Piramal, India's Industrialists , Vol. 1 (Washington, D. C.: Three Continents Press, 1985), 73.

[43]Birla's biographer Alan Ross provides the following information on Birla's life in The Emissary: G. D. Birla, Gandhi and Independence (London: Collins Harvill, 1986).

[44]G. D. Birla, In the Shadow of the Mahatma (Bombay: Vakils, Feffer and Simons, 1968), xiv.

[45]Herdeck and Piramal, 67.

[46]Michael Schuman, "The Birla Family," Forbes (1993): 88.

[47]Margaret Bourke-White, Halfway To Freedom (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1949), 64.

[48]Herdeck and Piramal, 77.

[49]Gandhi to G. D. Birla, 10 January 1927, G. D. Birla, In the Shadow of the Mahatma , 35.

[50]Judith M. Brown, Gandhi: Prisoner of Hope, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), 318.

[51]Bourke-White, 88-89

[52]Ibid., 11f.

[53]Gandhi to Louis Fischer, 6 June 1942, Louis Fischer, A Week With Mr. Gandhi, (London: Allen and Unwin, 1943) cited by B. R. Ambedkar, Gandhi and Gandhiism (Jullandar: Bheem Patrika Publications, 1970), 10.

[54]Birla had earlier written to Gandhi encouraging him to not worry about offending the Swaraj party. Birla writes that the Swarajists were espousing violence: "At the Sirajganj Conference the Swarajists have openly declared themselves in favour of violence and have therefore torn the mask of non-violence off their faces." Gandhi to Birla, 11 June 1924; G. D. Birla, Bapu, 7-8.

[55]Gandhi to Birla, 16 December 1925, Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.XXIX, 324.

[56]M. K. Gandhi, Young India, 12 November 1931.

[57]M. K. Gandhi, Young India, 7 October 1926.

[58]Bourke-White, 56-57.

[59]A. C. Nanda of Textile Mazoor Sabha to Gandhi, 14 November 1944, G. D. Birla, Bapu: A Unique Association, Vol. 4 (Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1977), 344-46.

[60]Birla to Pyarelal, 30 November 1944, Ibid., 347-8.

[61]Margaret Bourke-White, 49-58.

[62]Birla to Gandhi, October 1929, Bapu: A Unique Association, 128-29.

⁶³M. K. Gandhi, Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, 28.

[64]"God has given me mentors, and I regard you as one of them." Gandhi to Birla, 20 July 1924, Bapu, Vol. 1, 10.

[65]Letter Without Date, Bapu: A Unique Association, Vol.1, 167.

[66]G. D. Birla to Gandhi, 11 April 1928, Bapu: A Unique Association, 92.

[67]Gandhi to Birla, 27 April 1928, Ibid., 93.

[68]Gandhi to Birla, 28 April 1930, Ibid., 139.

[69]C. A. Bayly, "Patrons and Politics in Northern India," Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 7, Part 3, July 1973, 349-388.

[70]Ibid., 368ff.

[71]Ibid., 368.

[72]Ibid., 365.

[73]Ibid., 360.

[74]G. D. Birla in interview with Margaret Bourke-White; Margaret Bourke-White, 63.

[75]Gandhi, Birla House, 21 December 1947, Harijan, Vol. XI, 1973, 477.

[76]Ibid., 66.

[77]Ibid.

[78]Ibid.

[79]Henry F. May, Protestant Churches and Industrial America (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1949), 132.

[80]Andrew Carnegie, The Gospel of Wealth (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard, (1900) 1962), 25.

[81]Gandhi as cited in Raj Krishna's "The Nehru-Gandhi Polarity and Economic Policy" in Gandhi and Nehru by B. R. Nanda, P. C. Joshi, and Raj Krishna, (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1979), 55.

[82]Carnegie, 29 ff.

[83]Ibid., 72.

[84]Rajendra Prasad in foreword of G. D. Birla's In the Shadow of the Mahatma, vii.

[85]Pyarelal, Mahatma Gandhi: The Last Phase, 624.

[86]Ordinances of Manu, translated by Arthur Cole Burnell (New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint (1884) 1971), 303.

[87]"What is the duty of a trustee, if not to make his ward fit for everything that the trustee has been doing for the ward?" Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol. IX, Sept.-Nov. 1908, 475-6.; "They [the British] will be trustees and not tyrants, and they will live in perfect peace with the whole of the inhabitants of India." 14 October 1904, Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol. IX, Sept.-Nov. 1908, 481.

[88]Gandhi, Young India 1919-1922, 729.

[89]Gandhi, Young India 1919-1922, 729.

[90]Gandhi, Young India, 6 October 1921, 731f.

[91]Gandhi, Young India, 6 October 1921, 732-36.

[92]See B. R. Ambedkar's chapter, "Gandhi, the Doom of Untouchables" in Gandhi and Gandhiism, 42-92.

[93]B. R. Ambedkar, Gandhi and Gandhiism, 10.

[94]Birla to Gandhi, 10 January 1933, Bapu: A Unique Association, Vol. 1, 248.

[95]B. R. Ambedkar, 63.

[96]Claude Markovits, Indian Business and Nationalist Politics 1931-1939: The Indigenous Capitalist Class and the Rise of the Congress Party, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 183.

[97]B. R. Tomlinson, The Political Economy of the Raj, 163.

[98]Jawaharlal Nehru as cited by Markovits, 206.

[99]Bombay Chronicle, 16 April 1936, as cited by Sarvepalli Gopal in Jawaharlal Nehru: A Biography, Vol. One 1889-1947 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1976), 209.

[100]Gopal, 190.

[101]To Purushottamdas Thukurdas, 20 April 1936. Purushottamdas Thakurdas papers, File 177. N.M.M.L. Emphasis in original, as cited by Gopal, 209.

[102]As cited by Markovits, 206.

[103]G. D. Birla to Walchand Hirachand, 26 May 1936. Purushottamdas Thakurdas papers, file 177, as cited in Gopal, 212.

[104]Gopal, 212.

[105]Birla wrote to Mahadev Desai, "Bapu says that the Congress and he are willing to be converted. I drew the attention of Nawabzaba to this and asked him to say publicly that he is prepared to meet the Congress and convert it. To this, he replied: `Jawaharlal says he does not even want to talk of Pakistan. How could then the conversation be possible?' I think the two statements, viz., of Jawaharlal and Bapu, are contradictory to each other. If the Congress position is that it is willing to be converted, then a meeting in necessary ... You know my views about Pakistan. I am in favor of separation and I do not think it is impracticable, or against the interest of Hindus or India." Birla to Mahadev Desai, 14 June 1942, Bapu: A Unique Association, Vol. 4, 315-6.

[106]Birla to Bourke-White; Bourke-White, 69.

[107]Birla as cited by Alan Ross, 177.

[108]This paper does not necessarily represent the opinion of the Department of Defense or the United States Army. It is solely the view of the author.

[109]Ambedkar earned an M.A. and Ph.D. from Columbia University in New York City, a D.Sc. from London University, and a Passed the Bar was issued from Grey's Inn, London.

[110]Eleanor Zelliot, "Gandhi and Ambedkar," in The Untouchables in

Contemporary India, ed. J. Michael Mahar (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1972), 70. I am grateful for Professor Zelliot's assistance in providing many of the sources for this paper.

[111]Eleanor M. Zelliot, "Dr. Ambedkar and the Mahar Movement" (Ph.D. diss., University of Pennsylvania, 1969), 53.

[112]Ibid., 52.

[113]Ibid., 4-5.

[114]Shivaji (1627-1680) led Maharashtra's "fierce ... opposition to Mughal rule." He fought primarily in the Deccan, but his raids took him as far north as Surat. Stanley Wolpert writes, "Shivaji clearly used an intimate knowledge of his homeland to considerable martial advantage, and he well deserves to be called one of the founding fathers of modern guerrilla warfare." Stanley Wolpert, A New History of India, 3d ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 162-65.

[115]Cynthia H. Enloe, Ethnic Soldiers: State Security in Divided Societies (Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1980), 23.

[116]V. Longer, Forefront Forever: The History of the Mahar Regiment (Saugor, India: The Mahar Regimental Center, 1981), 2.

[117]Ibid., 5.

[118]S.P.P. Thorat, The Regimental History of the Mahar MG Regiment (Dehra Dun: The Army Press, 1954), 3.

[119]Ardythe Basham, "Army Service and Social Mobility: The Mahars of the Bombay Presidency, with Comparisons with the Bene Israel and Black Americans" (Ph.D. diss., University of British Columbia, 1986), 26. This thesis, provided by Professor Zelliot, is the most detailed work on the Mahars and their unique relationship with the military and provided much of the data for this paper.

[120]Ibid.

[121]Stephen P. Cohen, The Indian Army: Contribution to the Development of a Nation 2d ed. (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990), 59.

[122]Longer, 13.

[123]Basham, 37.

[124]Longer, 14.

[125]Eleanor Zelliot, "Learning the Use of Political Means: The Mahars of Maharashtra," in Caste in Indian Politics, ed. Rajni Kothari (New Delhi: Orient Longman, 1970), 33.

[126]Basham devotes seven pages to narratives of the Marine Battalion.

[127]Thorat, 5.

[128]The Royal Commission was appointed to examine the Army following the mutiny. It was not "instructed to examine the role of caste, it soon became aware that caste and the structure of Indian society would be a central problem." Cohen, 36.

[129]Longer, 17.

[130]Ibid., 18.

[131]Frederick S. Roberts, Forty-One Years in India: From Subaltern to Commander-in-Chief (New York: Longman, Green and Company, 1898), 534.

[132]Ibid., 532.

[133]Basham, 192.

[134]Longer, 18. The officer ranks were equivalent to Majors, Captains and Lieutenants of the British Army with the caveat that Indians could not command British soldiers.

[135]Zelliot, "Gandhi and Ambedkar," 75.

[136]Basham, 114.

[137]Zelliot, "Dr. Ambedkar," 4.

[138]B. R. Ambedkar, What Congress and Gandhi Have Done to the Untouchables 2d ed. (Bombay: Thacker and Co. Ltd., 1946), 189, quoted in Zelliot, "Political Means," 33-34.

[139]Dhananjay Keer, Dr. Ambedkar: Life and Mission 2d ed. (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 1964), 9.

[140]Ibid., 11.

[141]Basham also writes that "The Bombay Army also made a small but important contribution to female education in the Bombay Presidency. At least three regimental girls' schools were mentioned in a report by the American Missionary Society in 1829." Basham, 150.

[142]Ibid., 153.

[143]Ibid., 167.

[144]Keer, 12.

[145]Basham, 167-68.

[146]Ibid., 176.

[147]Ibid., 171.

[148]Zelliot, "Political Means," 33.

[149]Basham, 179.

[150]Zelliot, "Political Means," 34.

[151]Basham, 208. Zelliot writes that "[t]he petition was never translated into English or presented to the British, but it serves as documentation for Mahar attitudes of the time. Zelliot, "Political Means," 34.

[152]Basham, 208.

[153]Ibid., 321. This is a translation of the document written in Marathi. Therefore, some of the grammar is not correct.

[154]"Warrior" caste.

[155]Sanskritization denotes an attempt to demonstrate that the Untouchables situation is one of mistaken identify and that the social norms of interaction with other castes should change.

[156]Basham, 315-18.

[157]Ibid., 210-11.

[158]Ibid., 211.

[159]Zelliot, "Dr. Ambedkar," 70.

[160]Basham, 322.

[161]Byron Farwell, Armies of the Raj: From the Mutiny to Independence, 1858- 1947 (New York: Norton, 1989), 190.

[162]Keer, 336.

[163]Ibid., 223-24.

[164]Ibid., 175.

[165]Ibid., 149.

[166]Longer, xi.

[167]This paper is dedicated to Dr. Nikhil Sinha, who asked all the right questions so long ago. Many thanks to Dr. Richard Lariviere for his support and thanks also to my dearest husband.

[168]B. H. Bagdikian, "The Lords of the Global Village," The Nation 12 (June 1989): 805-820.

[169]P.C. Chatterjee, Broadcasting in India (New Delhi: Sage, 1987), 200. Newspapers and film escaped this centralizing tendency, probably because they had already evolved into mature industries at the time of independence.

[170]A.Vasudeva and L. K. Malhatra, "India: T.V. at the Crossroads: Indian Television Programs Fiction," UNESCO Carrier (October 1992): 37.

[171]Literally, "distance audience."

[172]M. Pendakur, "A Political Economy of Television: State, Class and Corporate Influence in India." in Electronic Dependency: Third World Communications and Information in an Age of Transnationalism, ed. G. Sussman and J. Lent (Newbury Park, California: Sage, 1990), 242.

[173] Vasudeva and Malhatra, 37.

[174]C. Jayaram, Market Reports, National Trade Data Base, Lexis-Nexis, 17 August 1993.

[175]"Doordarshan: Opening Up at Last," India Today. 15 April 1994, 53.

[176]M. Pendakur, 250.

[177]P. Mankekar, "National Texts and Gendered Lives: An Ethnography of Television Viewers in a North Indian City," American Ethnologist 20 (August 1993) no. 3: 543.

[178]J. Sinclair, Culture and Trade: Some theoretical and Practical Considerations on "Cultural Industries," Lecture presented at the Media, Culture and Free Trade Conference, University of Texas, Austin, 3-5 March 1994.

[179]A. Smith, The Geopolitics of Information: How Western Culture Dominates the World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 15.

[180]P. C. Joshi, Culture, Communication and Social Change (New York: Vikas, 1989).

[181]S. Nadkarni, "Satellite Ends Doordarshan Party," Asia-Pacific Broadcasting, 30 November 1992.

[182]Jayaram.

[183]"Doordarshan," 53.

[184]M. Rahman and A. Agarwal, "Cable Bill: Ominous Signals," India Today, 15 September 1993, 48.

[185]N. Ingelbrecht, "In India, a Market Slowly Develops," Asia-Pacific Broadcasting, 30 November 1992. Cited in J. Foote, Electronic Media Change in the Least Developed Countries: the Cases of Bangladesh and Nepal, Paper presented at Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Kansas City, 11-14 August 1993.

[186]Lloyd R. and S. H. Rudolph, "Dishing it Out: India's Battle of the Airwaves," The Christian Science Monitor, 24 February 1992.

[187]"Doordarshan," 53.

[188]"Upendra for Limited Media Autonomy," Hindustan Times, 22 February 1994.

[189]Ibid.

[190]"Satellite TV Shows Asia a World Beyond Reach of State Censors," The Washington Post, 10 April 1993, A12.

[191]J. Curran, "The Impact of Advertising on the British Mass Media," in Media, Culture and Society: A Critical Reader, ed. R. Collins, J. Curran, N. Garnham, P. Scannell, P. Schlisinger and C. Sparks (London: Sage, 1986).

[192]"Talking Sport: Pulling the plug may short-circuit India's World Cup plans," The Daily Telegraph, 16 November 1993, 35.

[193]Trans-World International, who won international telecast rights from the Cricket Association of Bengal, chose to give domestic telecast rights in India to STAR TV. The Supreme Court, citing a 1885 Telegraph Act, upheld Doordarshan's sole domestic rights. Doordarshan thus retains sole uplink rights in India.

[194]"India-Economy: State T.V. Opens to Foreign Advertisers," Inter Press Service, 22 February 1994.

[195]D. W. Smythe, Dependency Road: Communication, Capitalism, Consciousness and Canada (Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex Publishing Corp., 1981).

[196]Jayaram.

[197]J. Tunstall and M. Palmer, Media Moguls (London: Routledge, 1991), 124.

[198]Doordarshan, as a monopoly television service, has been in a position to treat advertisers as it pleases. The I & B minister was quoted as saying in India Today, that he was like a shop-keeper, and advertisers would have to negotiate on his terms. In a larger sense, this statement reflects the how monopoly suppliers in India often leave consumers with little choice. "Interview with I & B Minister," India Today, 31 July 1993, 64.

[199]Jayaram.

[200]S. T. Davies, "$50 m deal biggest yet for TV movies," South China Morning Post, 4 April 1992, 2.

²⁰¹J. Tunstall and M. Palmer, 124.

²⁰²"Murdoch Hopes to Expand into India via TV Production," AFX News, 15 February 1994.

[203]"There are more Patels Out There than Smiths," Forbes, 14 March 1994.

[204]A. Dawtrey, "Euro-high Rollers set to Join Murdoch's new Global Effort," Daily Variety , 7 September 1993, 1.

[205]K. Murphy, "Asians Resist a Western Media Invasion: As Murdoch Moves In, Concern Over Values and Revenues," International Herald Tribune, 12 August 1993.

[206]"Chinese Law on Satellite Dishes Blocks Access to Foreign Stations," The Guardian, 9 October 1993, 14.

[207]"Murdoch in New Delhi to woo TV Viewers," Inter Press Service, 10 February 1994.

[208]Dawtrey, 1.

[209]Also known as "scrambling." S. Davies, "Guarded Welcome for New HK Television Plan" Financial Times, 3 July 1992, 26.

[210]"Digitization is essentially a software-based process using micro-electronic techniques to sample a given analog (wave) signal and convert it into binary bits for transmission. This process reduces the amount of bandwidth needed to transmit the signal ... instead of having to lease the entire transponder, thanks to digital compression, a user can rent a segment of transponder space" M. Albrecht, in "Communication Technology Update: 1993-1994," edited by A. Grant and K. Wilkinson. Austin, TX: Technology Futures, Inc.

[211]"Upgrade or Perish," India Today, 30 November 1993, 74.

[212]Jayaram.

²¹³N. Janus, "Transnational Advertising: the Latin American Case," in World Communications: A Handbook, ed. G. Gerbner and M. Siefert (New York: Longman, 1984), 137-143.

²¹⁴H. I. Schiller, "Not Yet the Post-Imperialistic Era", Critical Studies in Mass Communication 8 (1991): 13-28.

[215]A. Kohli, "Politics of Economic Liberalization in India," World Development 17, no. 3, (1989): 305-328.

[216]In fact, the dismantling of the ruble/rupee trade arrangement as the erstwhile Soviet Union itself scrambles for Western assistance puts greater pressure on India to build up its foreign reserves and increase its competiveness so as to re-enter the global market.

[217]I. J. Ahluwalia, Industrial Growth in India: Stagnation Since the Mid-Sixtiess, (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985).

[218]Kohli, 305-328.

[219]Market Reports: India-Country Marketing Plan 1993, National Trade Data Base, Lexis-Nexis, 17 August 1993.

[220]I. Kohli, Symposium Rapportage: Economic Liberalization in South Asia. April 16-18, 1993 (Center for South Asia Studies: University of California, Berkeley, 1993), 6.

[221]S. Jain and H. Sanotra, "Economic Reforms: Questioning the Pace," India Today, 15 November 1993.

[222]"Cable Industry: Upgrade or Perish," India Today, 30 November 1993.

[223]Kohli, 305-328.

[224]S. Guhathakurta, Electronic Policy and the Television Manufacturing Industry: Lessons from India's Liberalization Efforts. Institute of Urban and Regional Development, University of California at Berkeley. April 1992.

[225]Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi, and now, Narasimha Rao belong to this political party which has been in power for most of the five decades that independent India has existed.

[226]A. Mattelart, M. Mattelart, and X. Delcourt, International Image Markets: In Search of an Alternative Perspective (London: Comedia Publishing Group, 1984).