Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

and the Categorical Imperative

Kant's single moral value: The only thing good in itself is a good will: a faculty of choice that conforms solely to universal considerations.

A perfectly good will is a will that conforms to rational law (independently of desire, pleasure, and all subjective and particular determinations).

A good will acts on considerations that hold for everyone, for every rational being.

On what principle does a good will act? In other words, what is the fundamental principle of ethics?

A first principle must be categorical, the same for every rational being in all circumstances.

It must be independent of particular circumstances to include desires, goals, etc.

Kant ® to be categorical the first principle must be necessary (couldn't just happen to be true) and a priori (independent of experience reflecting particular circumstances).

Kant’s first principle is called the categorical imperative.

(Why an “imperative”?)

What form would an ethical principle take?

Kant ® a command, an imperative, a statement saying that we should or ought to do such and such.

Imperatives

(sentences containing an ought)

hypothetical	categorical
dependent on particular circumstances	independent of particular circumstances
If . . ., then you should . . .	You should . . .

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Universalizability:

• If it is morally right (wrong, supererogatory, etc.) for J to perform an action of type A, then in the same circumstances it would be morally right for M to perform an action of type A.
• The "Golden Rule": Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
• Jaina universality (500 B.C.): Everything that is a self or capable of feeling pain is not to be harmed.
• Formal principle of justice: Treat similar cases similarly; judge only by morally relevant factors.

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Kant's categorical imperative:

• Act so you can will the maxim of your act as a universal law of nature. (Act on principle; don't make exceptions for yourself.)
• Treat all as ends in themselves (not merely as means). (Respect people, don't use them.)

A maxim of an action is a rule it falls under.

DUTIES (to oneself & to others)

perfect duties	imperfect duties
specific; (corresponding) rights	not specific; no rights; realm of the morally permissible; allows choice

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Kant's examples:

	Duty to Self	Duty to Other
Perfect	1. Suicide	2. False promise
Imperfect	3. Talents	4. Beneficence

Maxims

1. From self-love, everyone should shorten his/her life whenever its continuance threatens more pain and suffering than pleasure and happiness.

2. Everyone “believing himself in need” should borrow money with a promise to repay but not intending to do so.

3. It is in general okay that out of laziness one not develop a natural but undeveloped talent.

4. Everyone should look after herself, not attending to the welfare of others even when they are in need.

These cannot be willed as universal laws of nature,

KINGDOM OF ENDS formulation: respect every rational being as like yourself capable of autonomy.

Kant's examples (a second time, with respect to never treating people as mere means):

1. suicide: uses yourself; disregards status of one's future self as belonging to the kingdom of ends

2. false promise: uses another as a means to personal gain

3. failure to develop talents: (?) fails to conform to nature's intention regarding humanity (alternatively, fails in duty to future self)

4. failure of beneficence: (?) inconsistent with the full meaning of one's belonging to the kingdom of ends (does not treat people as capable of autonomy, does not value this)