[2]David M. Reimers, Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985).

[3]Particularly interesting is Jensen's claim that Indian men were especially "successful" with Mexican women. Jensen notes that of 400 Indian families formed before 1946, 80% included an Indian man and a Mexican woman. She states: "Indians either kept to themselves or joined Mexican-American or black communities. Some Indians who had difficulty finding jobs in cities claimed to be Mexican or black, believing the prejudice to be greater against Indians," from Joan Jensen, Passage from India (New Haven: Yale University Press 1988), p. 41.

[4] I speak here of Indians, rather than South Asians, as this is the pre-independence period.

[5] Jensen, Passage from India, p. 258.

[6]Maxine P. Fisher, The Indians of New York City: A Study of Immigrants from India (Columbia, MO: South Asia Books, 1980).

[7] Elliot R. Barkan, "Portal of Portals: Speaking of the United States `As Though it Were New York'--and Vice Versa," in William Pencak, Selma Berrot, Randall M. Miller, eds., Immigration to New York (New York: New York Historical Society, 1991), p. 222.

[8] Fisher, The Indians of New York City, p. 11.

[9] David M. Reimers, "Recent Third World Immigration to New York City, 1945-1986: An Overview" in William Pencak, Selma Berrot, Randall M. Miller, eds., Immigration to New York (New York: New York Historical Society, 1991), p. 190.

[10] Jensen, Passage from India, p. 280.

[11] See Jose Salvo, The Newest New Yorkers: An Analysis of Immigration into New York City During the 1980's (New York: Department of City Planning, 1992).

[12] Parmatma Saran, The Asian Indian Experience in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Publishing Co., 1985), p. 31.

¹³Unless otherwise noted, data presented is from the NYC Taxicab Fact Book, compiled by the NYC Taxi and Limousine Commission (TLC) in 1991.

[14]These numbers reflect current statistics reported in the New York Times article, "Behind the Wheel," May, 15, 1998, p. A1.

[15]From LDC newsletter Peela Paiya, p. 10.

[16]These and the following incidents are reported in Peela Paiya.

[17]This comment refers to former New York City David Dinkins, who preceded current mayor Rudy Giuliani.

[18]Suzanne Model, "The Ethnic Niche and the Structure of Opportunity: Immigrants and Minorities in New York City," in Michael B. Katz, ed., The Underclass Debate (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).

[19]Johanna Lessinger, From the Ganges to the Hudson: Indian Immigrants in New York City (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1995), p. 19.

[20]Fisher, Indians in New York City and Paratma Saran, The Asian Indian Experience in the United States and The New Ethnics: Asian Indians in the United States (New York: Praeger, 1980).

[21]David M. Reimers, "Recent Third World Immigration to New York City, 1945-1986: An Overview," in William Pencak, Selma Berrot, Randall M. Miller, eds., Immigration to New York (New York: New York Historical Society, 1991).

[22]Roger Daniels, Coming to America: A History of Immigration and Ethnicity in American Life (New York: Harper Collins, 1990).

[23]Roger Waldinger, Still the Promised City? African-Americans and New Immigrants in Postindustrial New York (Cambridge: Harvard Press, 1996).

[24]Lessinger, From the Ganges to the Hudson, p. 15.

[25]Ibid., p. 83 and p. 156.

[26]Police statistics cited in "Behind the Wheel," New York Times, May, 15, 1998, p. B6.

[27]Qutoed in "Behind the Wheel," New York Times, May, 15, 1998, p. B6.

[28]Biju Mathew, "Cab Drivers in New York Organize Against Violence" (World Wide Web) 1993.

[29]Benjamin Lee Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1956).

[30]F. Erickson, "Transformation and School Success: The Politics and Culture of Educational Achievement," Anthropology and Education Quarterly 18(14): 335-356.

[31]Ward Goodenough, Culture, Language and Society (Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley, 1971).

[32]M.E. Matute-Bianchi, "What is Bicultural About Bilingual/Bicultural education?, The Urban Review 12: 91-108.

[33]G. Green, A Journey Without Maps (New York: Penguin, 1952).

[34]F. Erickson, "Transformation and School Success: The Politics and Culture of Educational Achievement," Anthropology and Education Quarterly 18(14): 335-356.

[35]J. Cummins, "The Influence of Bilingualism on Cognitive Growth: A Synthesis on Research Findings and Explanatory Hypothesis, Working Papers on Bilingualism 9: 1-43.

[36]James Clifford, James, Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997); Avtar Brah, Cartographies of Diasopora: Contesting Identities (New York: Routledge, 1996), Peter van der Veer, Nation and Migration: The Politics of Space in the South Asian Diaspora (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995).

[37]Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1996).

[38]Louis Dumont, Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Implications (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1966). For ethnographic examples of caste "in action" see Nicholas Dirks, The Hollow Crown: The Ethnohistory of an Indian Kingdom (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993); Andre Beteille, Caste, Class, and Power: Changing Patterns of Stratification in a Tanjore Village (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971); Edmund Leach, Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon, and North-West Pakistan: Cambridge Papers in Social Anthropology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962).

[39]Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997).

[40]E.H. Lenneberg, Biological Foundations of Language (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1967).

[41]J. D'Souza, "The Relationship Between Code-Switching and New Varieties of English: Issues and Implications," World Englishes 11 (2/3): 217-23; Charles A. Ferguson, "South Asia as a Sociolinguistic Area," In E. Dimock, Jr., Br. Kachru, and Bh. Krishnamurti, eds., New Dimensions of Sociolinguistics in South Asia (New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing, 1992).

[42]Colin Masica, The Indo-Aryan Languages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), Pp. 74-75.

[43]Manjari Ohala, Aspects of Hindi Phonology (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas, 1983); R.S. McGregor, Outline of Hindi Grammar (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1972), Introduction; Colin Masica, The Indo-Aryan Languages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), Pp. 86-122.

[44]C. Prator and B. Robinett, Manual of American English Pronunciation, 4th Edition (San Francisco: Holt, Reinhart and Winston, 1985); K.C. Bhatia, "Consonant Sequences in Standard Hindi," Indian Linguistics 25: 206-12.

[45]P. Pandey, "Shwa Deletion in Hindi: Synchrony and Diachrony," Indian Linguistics 17: 116-128.

[46]Punya S. Ray, "Hindi-Urdu Stress," Indian Linguistics 27: 95-101.

[47]Ibid.

[48]R.S. McGregor, Outline of Hindi Grammar (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1972); R. Caldwell Smith and S.C.R. Weightman, Introductory Hindi Course (Mussoorie, U.P.: The North India Institute of Language Study, 1979).

[49]Ibid.

[50]Ibid.

[51]Ibid.

[52]Ibid.

[53]Ibid.

[54]J.A. Fishman, Bilingual Education: An International Sociological Perspective (Cambridge, Mass.: Newbury House, 1976).

[55]V.P. Collier, "How long? A Synthesis of Research on Academic Achievement in Second Language," TESOL Quarterly 23: 509-531.

[56]R.C. Gardner and W.E. Lambert, Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning (Rowley, Mass: Newbury House, 1972).

[57]N. Chomsky, "Review of Verbal Behavior by B.F. Skinner," Language 35: 26-58.

[58]P.M. Lightbown, "Great Expectations: Second Language Acquisition Research and Classroom Teaching," Applied Linguistics 6(2): 173-189.

[59]J. Cummins, "The Role of Primary Language development in Promoting Educational Success for Language Minority Students." In National Evaluation, Dissemination, and Assessment Center, ed., Schooling and Language Minority Students: A Theoretical Framework (Los Angeles: California State University, 1981).

[60]V.P. Collier, "Age and Rate of Acquisition of a Second Language for Academic Purposes," TESOL Quarterly 21: 617-641.

[61]J. Cummins, "The Role of Primary Language development in Promoting Educational Success for Language Minority Students." In National Evaluation, Dissemination, and Assessment Center, ed., Schooling and Language Minority Students: A Theoretical Framework (Los Angeles: California State University, 1981).

[62]V.P. Collier and W.P. Thomas, W.P., "How Quickly Can Immigrants Become Proficient in School English?," Journal of Educational Issues of Language Minority Students 5: 26-38; M. Gottlieb, "Communicative Language and Academic Proficiencies of Limited English Proficient and Native English-Speaking Elementary School Students." A paper presented at the 1985 meeting of the American Educational Research Association at Chicago (ERIC Document Reproduction Service # ED 260 593); M. Saville-Troike, "What Really Matters in Second Language Learning for Academic Achievement?," TESOL Quarterly 18: 199-219.

[63]J.G. deVilliars, Language Acquisition (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978).

[64]M.N. Vihman and B. McLaughlin, "Bilingualism and second language acquisition in preschool children's progress in cognitive development," In C. Brainet, ed., Verbal Processes in Children (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1982); V. Volterra and T. Taeschner, "The Acquisition and Development of Language by Bilingual Children," Journal of Child Language 5: 311-326.

[65]M.H. Long, "Maturational Constraints on Language Development," Studies in Second Language Acquisition 12: 251-285.

[66]L.S. Vygotsky, Thought and Language (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962).

[67]W.F. Leopold, "Speech Development of a Bilingual Child: A Linguist's Record, Vocabulary Growth in the First Two Years (Vol. 1-4) (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1939); W.F. Leopold, "The Study of Child Language and Infant Bilingualism," Word 4: 1-17.

[68]J.G. deVilliars, Language Acquisition (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978).

[69]B. McLaughlin, Language Acquisition (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987).

[70]S. Krashen, Principals and Practice of Second Language Acquisition (Oxford: Pergamon, 1982).

[71]Ibid.

[72]Ibid.

[73]Ibid.

[74]Ibid.

[75]Ibid.

[76]Ibid.

[77]Ibid.

[78]R.C. Gardner and W.E. Lambert, Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning (Rowley, Mass: Newbury House, 1972); J. Ogbu, The Next Generation: An Ethnography of Education in an Urban Neighborhood (New York: Academic Press, 1974).

[79]Ibid.

[80]J. Ogbu, "Variability in Minority Responses to Schooling: Non-immigrants vs. Immigrants," In George Spindler and Louise Spindler, eds., Interpretive Ethnography of Education: At Home and Abroad (New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1987).

[81]Ibid., p. 274

[82]Ibid.

[83]Ibid.

[84]Ibid.

[85] Harold Garfinkle, Studies in Ethnomethodology (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1967).

[86] G.P. Gutherie and W.S. Hall, "Culture and the Bilingual Classroom," In H.T. Trueba, G.P. Gutherie and K.H. Au, eds., Studies in Classroom Ethnography (Rowley, Mass: Newbury House, 1981).

[87]F. Erickson, "Transformation and School Success: The Politics and Culture of Educational Achievement," Anthropology and Education Quarterly 18(14): 335-356.

[88]Ibid., p. 352. ⁸⁹ Wendell Willkie, quoted in M.S. Venkataramani and B.K. Shrivastava, Quit India: The American Response to the 1942 Struggle (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1979), p. 307.

[90]Quoted in Ibid., p. 26.

[91]Ibid., p. 26.

[92]Gary R. Hess, America Encounters India, 1942-1947 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1971), p. 7.

[93]Linlithgow to Churchill, 2/14/42 in Nicholas Mansergh, E.W.R. Lumby, eds., The Transfer of Power, 1942-7 , Vol. 1 (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1971), doc. 124. All future references to Transfer of Power documents will be cited as follows: sender and recipient, date, TP: volume, document number.

[94]Welles to Winant, 2/25/42, in Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States Diplomatic Papers 1942, Vol. 1, (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1960), 604. All future references to these documents will be as follows: sender and recipient, date, FR: year and volume, page.

[95]Soong to Roosevelt, 2/25/42, FR: 1942 volume 1, p. 605.

[96]Long to Welles, 2/25/42, FR: 1942 volume 1, p. 606.

[97]Ibid.

[98]Venkataramani and Shrivastava, Quit India, p. 48.

[99]Amery to Linlithgow, 3/8/42, TP: volume 1, p. 280.

[100]Welles to Winant, 2/25/42, FR: 1942 volume 1, p. 604.

[101]Roosevelt to Churchill, 3/11/42, TP: volume 1, p. 311.

[102]Ibid.

[103]Venkataramani and Shrivastava, Quit India, Pp. 49-50.

[104] Alling-Memorandum, 1/23/42, FR: 1942 volume 1, 595-597 and Berle-Memorandum, 1/28/42, FR: volume 1, Pp. 597-598.

[105]Donovan to Secretary of State, 5/20/42, FR: 1942 volume 1, Pp. 654-656.

[106]Roosevelt to Linlithgow, 3/19/42, TP: volume 1, p. 350.

[107]Shaw-Memorandum, 3/11/42, FR: 1942 volume 1, p. 617.

[108]Pinnell to Turnbull, 4/6/42, TP: volume 1, p. 540.

[109]Johnson to Secretary of State, 4/7/42, FR: 1942 volume 1, 628-29.

[110]Linlithgow-Note, 4/8/42, TP: volume 1, p. 553.

[111]Linlithgow to Amery, 5/27/42, TP: volume 2, p. 91.

[112]Churchill to Cripps, 4/9/42, TP: volume 1, p. 564.

[113]Venkataramani and Shrivastava, Quit India, p. 104.

[114]Linlithgow to Churchill, 8/31/42, TP: volume 2, p. 662.

[115]Venkataramani and Shrivastava, Quit India, Pp. 131-3.

[116]Hull to Johnson, 5/8/42, FR: 1942 volume 1 ,p. 650.

[117]Merrell to Secretary of State, 6/21/42, FR: 1942 volume 1, p. 675.

[118]War Cabinet Paper, 8/5/42, TP: volume 2, p. 422.

[119]British Embassy to Department of State, 8/7/42, FR: 1942 volume 1, Pp. 703-5.

[120]Linlithgow to Churchill, 8/31/42, TP: volume 2, p. 662.

[121]Roosevelt to Chiang Kai-shek, 8/12/42, FR: 1942 volume 1, p. 716.

[122]Press Release by Department of State, 8/12/42, FR: 1942 volume 1, Pp. 720-21.

[123]Berle-Memorandum, 8/18/42, FR: 1942 volume 1, p. 724.

[124]Venkataramani and Shrivastava, Quit India, p. 191.

[125]Halifax to Eden, 9/16/42, TP: volume 2, p. 749.

[126]Eden to Amery, 8/22/42, TP: volume 2, p. 610.

[127]Eden to Halifax, 10/10/42, TP: volume 3, p. 85.

[128]Eden to Halifax, 9/28/42, TP: volume 3, p. 42.

[129]Roosevelt quoted in Venkataramani and Shrivastava, Quit India, p. 65.

[130]Eden to Halifax, 11/20/42, TP: volume 3, p. 202.

[131]Halifax to Eden, 12/03/42, TP: volume 3, p. 240.

[132]Linlithgow to Amery, 11/25/42, TP: volume 3, p. 214.

[133]Amery to Linlithgow, 11/28/42, TP: volume 3, p. 227.

[134]Hull to Winant, 11/20/42, FR: 1942 volume 1, p. 747.

[135]Ibid., p. 748.

[136]Linlithgow to Amery,1/11/43, TP: volume 3, p. 336.

[137]Phillips to Secretary of State, 12/19/42, FR: 1943 volume 4, p. 179.

[138]Linlithgow to Glancy, 1/27/43, TP: volume 3, p. 364.

[139]Phillips to Roosevelt, 1/22/43, FR: 1943 volume 4, Pp. 180-183.

[140]Linlithgow to Amery, 2/11/43, TP: volume 3, p. 455.

[141]William Phillips, Ventures in Diplomacy (Boston: Beacon Press, 1952), p. 363.

[142]Phillips to Secretary of State, 2/13/43, FR: 1943 volume 4, p. 192.

[143]Phillips to Roosevelt, 2/11/43, FR: 1943 volume 4, p. 191.

[144]Hull to Phillips, 2/17/43, FR: 1943 volume 4, p. 195.

[145]Hull to Phillips, 2/20/43, FR: 1943 volume 4, p. 199.

[146]Hull to Phillips, 2/16/43, FR: 1943 volume 4, p. 194.

[147]Phillips to Roosevelt, 4/19/43, FR: 1943 volume 4, p. 219.

[148]Phillips, Ventures in Diplomacy, p. 381.

[149]Phillips to Roosevelt, 5/14/43, FR: 1943 volume 4, p. 221.

[150]Ibid., p. 222.

[151]Phillips, Ventures in Diplomacy, p. 391.

[152]H. W. Brands, India and the United States: The Cold Peace (Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1990), 24.

[153] M.S. Venkataramani and B.K. Shrivastava, Roosevelt Gandhi Churchill (India: Radiant Publishers, 1983), Pp. x-xi.